Written by: Student Gabrielle M. Salee, Master’s Candidate
School of Global Affairs & Policy Department
Cuttington University School of Graduate and Professional Studies.
Introduction
The history of China’s territorial changes since the 19th century is marked by imperialism, internal strife, and a gradual restoration of its sovereignty. Beginning with the Qing Dynasty’s declining influence, China witnessed significant territorial losses to foreign powers during the “Century of Humiliation” (1839-1949), followed by efforts in the 20th century to reclaim its sovereignty. One of the most significant and unresolved territorial disputes today concerns the South China Sea and China’s claim to the Nine-Dash Line. (Keyuan, 1999-2001).
China’s Territorial Losses In The 19th Century
The Opium Wars (1839-1842; 1856-1860): The first major territorial loss for China came after the Opium Wars with Great Britain. Following the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, China ceded Hong Kong to Britain. The second Opium War (1856-1860) resulted in further concessions, including the cession of Kowloon Peninsula and the opening of more ports to foreign trade. (Hong Yu, 2003).
The Unequal Treaties: In the aftermath of the Opium Wars, China was forced into signing a series of “Unequal Treaties” with various foreign powers, including Britain, France, and Japan. These treaties resulted in the loss of territory, economic concessions, and the establishment of foreign-controlled areas within China. The Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895), for example, saw the cession of Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands to Japan.
The Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901): The Boxer Rebellion and subsequent intervention by the Eight-Nation Alliance resulted in further territorial losses. The Boxer Protocol (1901) imposed severe penalties on China, including the occupation of Beijing by foreign forces and the granting of concessions to foreign powers along China’s coast. (Zhigun, 1994).
The Restoration of China’s Territory in the 20th Century
The fall of the Qing Dynasty and the Rise of the Republic of China: The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 led to the establishment of the Republic of China, which faced internal strife and foreign influence. While the Republic did not immediately regain all lost territories, the early 20th century saw the restoration of some areas. The Treaty of Versailles (1919), however, granted Japan control over Shandong province, which was later returned to China after Japan’s defeat in World War II. (Zhiguo, 1994).
The Chinese Civil War and the Establishment of the People’s Republic of China.
The Chinese Civil War (1927-1949) culminated in the victory of the Communist Party of China (CPC) and the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. Under Mao Zedong’s leadership, China sought to restore its territorial integrity, recovering regions such as Tibet, Xinjiang, and Taiwan, although Taiwan remains a significant point of contention. (Dyke, 2009).
Territorial Cessions in the Northeast
The weakening Qing state also lost territory in the northeast to Russia:
- Under the Treaty of Aigun (1858) and the Convention of Peking (1860), Qing China ceded vast tracts of Manchuria north of the Amur and Ussuri rivers to Russia. These losses deprived China of access to the Pacific in the Far East and reshaped Sino-Russian borders that remain largely in place today.
Other Losses
The Sino-French War (1884–1885) and later conflict with Japan resulted in French influence in Southeast Asia (present-day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia) and Japanese control over Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands after the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895). (Gault, 2009).
The South China Sea and The Nine-Dash Line
Historical Context of the Nine-Dash Line: The Nine-Dash Line (originally the Eleven-Dash Line) refers to the demarcation line that China uses to claim most of the South China Sea, a region rich in resources and strategically important. The line was first published by the Republic of China in 1947 on maps drawn by the Kuomintang (KMT) government. After the Chinese Civil War, the People’s Republic of China adopted the claim, which has been a central feature of China’s foreign policy regarding the South China Sea. (Keyuan, 1999-2001).
Legal and Political Basis for the Claim: China justifies its claim to the Nine-Dash Line by asserting historical rights to the region based on ancient navigation, trade routes, and the continuous presence of Chinese fishermen in the area. The claim has been challenged by several countries, including the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia, all of which also have overlapping territorial claims in the region.
The legal basis for China’s claims is contentious, as international maritime law, particularly the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), generally does not support territorial claims based solely on historical precedent, especially when they conflict with the claims of other states. (Zhigun, 1994).
The 2016 Arbitration Award: In 2016, the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) ruled on a case brought by the Philippines against China, rejecting China’s claims to the Nine-Dash Line. The court found that there was no legal basis for China’s claims to historic rights in the South China Sea and that the Philippines had sovereign rights to its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) under international law. Despite the ruling, China has continued to assert its claims in the region, rejecting the court’s decision.
Ongoing Disputes and International Tensions: The South China Sea remains one of the most militarized and contentious regions globally. China has constructed artificial islands, including military facilities, in disputed areas, further exacerbating tensions with neighboring countries and the international community. The U.S. and other global powers have conducted freedom of navigation operations (FONOPs) to challenge China’s claims, leading to periodic military confrontations and diplomatic standoffs. (Gault, 2009).
THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA AND BORDER CONSOLIDATION
FOUNDING AND EARLY ADJUSTMENTS
After the Chinese Civil War (1945–1949), the People’s Republic of China (PRC) was established under the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The PRC inherited the ROC’s claims to mainland China and adjusted them based on control of territory. Key elements included:
- Reaffirmation of sovereignty over Taiwan and neighboring islands as part of a one-China policy, despite the ROC government’s retreat to Taiwan.
- Consolidation of control over Tibet and Xinjiang through military and political integration in the 1950s.
- Peaceful border settlements with much of Central Asia following the collapse of the Soviet Union, including the 1991 Sino-Soviet Border Agreement, which settled long-standing frontier questions and resulted in minor gains for China.
Despite consolidation, China’s modern borders are shaped by negotiation and historical legacy rather than continuous prior control. (Zhiguo, 1994).
CHINA’S MARINE CLAIMS: THE NINE-DASH LINE
ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION
China’s maritime claim in the South China Sea predates the PRC. In December 1947, the then-Republican government published a map including an eleven-dash line, marking Chinese claims around the South China Sea islands.
After the Communist takeover, the PRC government revised the line to nine dashes in 1952, removing two dashes in the Gulf of Tonkin reportedly out of solidarity with North Vietnam but otherwise maintaining the expansive maritime claim. Today, the nine-dash line appears on China’s official maps and passports as a symbolic boundary encompassing much of the South China Sea. (Hong Yu, 2003).
BASIS FOR THE CLAIM
China asserts the line reflects historical usage, discovery, naming, and navigational activity by Chinese fishermen and dynasties dating back centuries, as well as archaeological finds and historical navigation records. Chinese state messaging emphasizes “continuous exercise of authority” over these waters and features as justification for its claims.
LEGAL DISPUTE AND INTERNATIONAL LAW
Under contemporary international law particularly UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea) maritime rights are generally defined by coastal baselines and exclusive economic zones (EEZs) extending 200 nautical miles from shore. The nine-dash line, which does not correspond to coordinates nor to UNCLOS principles, overlaps EEZs of other coastal states including Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei.
In 2016, a UN arbitration tribunal in the case brought by the Philippines found that the historic rights basis of the nine-dash line had no legal basis under UNCLOS. China rejected the ruling and continues to assert sovereignty rooted in history and national narrative. (Zhigun, & Zhiguo, 1994).
CONCLUSION
China’s territorial evolution since 1800 has been marked by significant losses and efforts to restore sovereignty. The Nine-Dash Line is a critical issue in the modern geopolitical landscape, representing both China’s desire to reclaim historical territory and the complex international legal and diplomatic challenges that arise from competing claims in the South China Sea. The dispute over the Nine-Dash Line is emblematic of broader tensions between historical national identity, legal frameworks, and international order. (Dyke, & Gault, 2009).
References
- Mitter, R. (2013). China’s War with Japan, 1937-1945: The Struggle for Survival. Penguin Books.
- Blanchard, C. M., & Morrison, W. M. (2016). The South China Sea Dispute: A Brief Guide. Congressional Research Service.
- Scobell, A., & Nader, A. (2020). China’s Strategic Intentions in the South China Sea. RAND Corporation.
- Chang, J. (2008). The Coming Collapse of China. Random House.
- Sutter, R. G. (2017). The United States and China: A History from the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
- Hsiung, J. C. (2017). China’s Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity. Cambridge University Press.
- Permanent Court of Arbitration (2016). South China Sea Arbitration (The Philippines v. China). https://pca-cpa.org/
